ENTREPRENEURSHIP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ENTREPRENEURSHIP - Essay Example e prime intent of this report is to analyse the entrepreneurial behaviour of a restaurant owner who is running a restaurant business by conducting face-to-face interview with a predefined set of questions. While identifying the rationale of preparing this report, it is to be affirmed that today, food industry is one of the growing sectors and therefore encouraged the business owners to establish restaurants with the aim of earning more profit (Palo Alto Software, 2015). Therefore, there exists a high competition amid the restaurants, as this appears under the category of ‘perfectly competitive market’. It is thus necessary for a restaurant owner to select the target customers and try to fulfil their necessities as per their demands. Entrepreneurship denotes the readiness and the ability of an entrepreneur to establish and manage a business along with the risks involved in it with the intention of earning maximum profit (Harvard Business Publishing, 2015). An entrepreneur is responsible for developing a business model and procuring necessary resources that are required for running a business in an efficient manner (2Entrepreneur Media Inc, 2015). Entrepreneurs are duly considered to be the leaders who always desire to take risks and implement the opportunities derived from the market by means of improving existing products/services (Brooks, 2015). In relation to a restaurant business, the entrepreneurship theory or model fundamentally represents certain skills including the management and team building skills that are considered as the leadership attributes, which deemed to be quite essential for the entrepreneurs to obtain greater success. However, one of the major elements of entrepreneurship theory in the context of restaurant business is the passion for conducting business and remaining self motivated throughout the business or operational process (Kuratko, 2013). In relation to the restaurant business, the entrepreneurship theory represents the fact that

Expectations Charles Dickens Essay Example for Free

Expectations Charles Dickens Essay In the first chapter of Great Expectations Charles Dickens creates a very intense image of the marshes. This is the first place he describes and he makes the marshes sound like a very creepy and bewildering place.  Ours was the marsh country, down by the river, within, as the river wound, twenty miles of the sea.  The words marsh and the river makes the marshes sound like a very damp, muddy and bleak place.  Also in the first chapter Charles Dickens describes the churchyard as  Bleak place overgrown with nettles. Dickens also describes the churchyard s a very Overgrown and bleak place.  A graveyard is supposed to be a happy place that revitalises and refreshes kind, happy memories. I think this implies that death is all around no matter where you look. I think this because everything is overgrown and not looked after and the nettles are killing all of the beautiful plants so death is also involved there as well.  Dickens also says about the marshes in the first chapter   And that the dark flat wilderness beyond the churchyard, intersected with dykes and mounds and gates, with scattered cattle feeding on it, was the marshes: and that the low leaden line beyond was the river: and the distant savage liar from which the wind was rushing was the sea. This quote represents a dark and unforgiving future for Pip and that there is no one out there in the wilderness to care for him. The words leaden line imply a low lead river that looks like it has bars on and to Pip this makes him feel imprisoned. Also the words savage liar represents to Pip that he thinks that there is like a savage monster out there in the sea. Furthermore in chapter one Dickens explains the marshes as a long black, horizontal line and the sky was just a row of long, angry red lines and dense black lines intermixed. The words represent anger and danger and black utility, death and emptiness. Pip again feels like he is a prisoner to the marshes. At the start of the first chapter instead of Pip being one of the main characters he becomes the narrator of the story and starts talking about his family.   So I called myself Pip, and came to be called Pip.  When Pip goes to the churchyard to the graveyard to look at their graves and imagines what his family would of looked like this proves he has a very distinct and creative imagination.   My first fancies regarding what they were like, were unreasonably derived from their tombstones.  Also Pip proves that there was a high rate of infant mortality and he also proves that there was a universal struggle to die. To five little stone lozenges, each about a foot and a half long, which were arranged in a neat row beside their grave, and were scared to the memory of five little brothers of mine who gave up trying to get a living exceedingly early in that universal struggle.  Dickens in the first chapter changes from first person the narrator to third person and this s a very unnatural method to use.   And that the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry, was Pip. Also Great Expectations was serialised which means that he novel was brought out in chapters and because the novel was successful people kept buying each chapter each time they were released.  When Pip goes into the churchyard to the graveyard so that he can go and visualise his brothers and his parents he meets a convict. The convict is starving and looking for food and basically anything and so he turns Pip upside town.   The man after looking at me for a moment turned me upside-down.  This is very strong and imaginative and you can clearly imagine it as he turns him upside down literally and metaphorically. After this the convict starts talking to Pip about his appearance. He talks about  What fat cheeks you ha got:  After this Pip says  I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and not strong.  This gives the impression that Pip has never been fed properly and this make Pip sound innocent and vulnerable.  Later on Pip makes a promise to the convict that he would bring some food and some wittles so that the convict could release himself from the chain around his ankles and the convict threatens Pip to make sure he does this.

Changing the Military with Servant Leadership Essay -- Servant Leaders

There are a number of significant difficulties for today’s military - the Global War on Terrorism or what has recently been termed the â€Å"Long War;† weapon system acquisitions and personnel draw downs. The focus of this paper is on one strategic component of the military quest—Leadership. More specifically, it will center on servant leadership and its impact on the military’s vision. This paper first explores the significance of the leadership change, followed by an examination of three notable characteristics of servant leadership and their historical influence through the eyes of a famous leader. Whether one studies Sun Tzu’s â€Å"The Art of War†, Martin Luther King Jr.’s extraordinary passion for equality, or even Vince Lombardi’s coaching genius, one can easily find models for inspirational leadership and strategies for success. Inspirational leadership conveyed through motivational speakers boosts the passion of its audience because it taps into emotions. So what is it that draws people to a leader? Is it charisma, passion, kindness, or fairness? Is it the ability to cast a vision that the entire organization can understand and support? Next, this paper will look at servant leadership and its comparison to the terms leadership and management. Members of the military all swear an oath to protect and defend the constitution of the United States against all enemies foreign and domestic. Whether they knew it or not, by swearing that oath, they accepted the responsibility to lead our subordinates. Speaking from experience, I worked for many highly qualified managers over the 24 years I spent in the Navy, but only a few life-changing, organization-transforming leaders. Running from meeting to meeting and desperately trying to stay ahe... ...ber 25th, 2010 from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/leader. Leadership. Dictionary.com.(2010) Webster's revised unabridged dictionary. MICRA, Inc. Retrieved November 25th, 2010 from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/leadership. Management. (2008). Websters Online Dictionary. Retrieved November 25th, 2010 from http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Management. Responsibility. Dictionary.com.(2010). Webster's revised unabridged dictionary. MICRA, Inc. Retrieved November 25th, 2010 from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/responsibility. Spears, L.C., and Lawrence, M. (2002). Focus on leadership: Servant leadership for the twenty-first century. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. IMDB.com. (2010). We were soldiers. Retrieved from The Internet Movie Database on November 25th, 2010 from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0277434/quotes.

Georgia and albert :: essays research papers

The gallery, as most are, was sparsely furnished with only a few benches. It was dominated by three huge paintings and peppered with many smaller works. In front of one, stood two sorority girls who were in heated debate. Rodney, seeing an opening to impress them, sauntered over to look at the painting and await the question he knew would come. He was right. One of the girls turned and asked "Can you tell if this is a man's or a woman's painting?" Not the question he'd expected. "Well," He said earnestly, examining the huge canvas with its large bold strokes of deep blue on a background of fantastic yellow patches. "It looks very strong. The paint is applied with a wild vitality. I'd say it's a man's work." "I told you so." said the first girl who's name was Amy. At least that's what her sweater said. "Well the label says Stacy Conover. That's a girls name." Complained the second girl. "Jan, it can be a guy's name too." This sort of argument occurs at almost every gallery. It isn't easy to settle either. Art done by men does not always look masculine nor does art by women always look feminine. The question that is posed is: Can you tell the difference between a mans art and a woman's art? I personally thought it through and decided I didn't have enough information. After digging through the library's encyclopedias, art history books, biographies and folios, it was clear that the original question was too broad. It just is not possible to give an answer on this much subject matter. With this in mind I set parameters and singled out two artists to be my subjects. Ideally the artist should have similar backgrounds as far as family and schooling. Also they need to have lived during the same period. Similar subjects and related media are best. Also they should have worked in the same locale at least for part of their careers. Hunting down and ferreting out a pair of artists to fit this description was not easy. I finally settled on two of the most important artists of the American Avant Garde, Georgia O'Keeffe and Alfred Stieglitz. As strange as it may seem this husband and wife shared many aspects. Enough to fit my parameters anyway. Georgia and Alfred were both born into large, wealthy, immigrant families. Georgia, the oldest O'Keefe daughter and Alfred the oldest son of the Stieglitz.

Communication Failure

â€Å"Communication is not an easy process. It involves verbal and non-verbal attempts to assist the other person to understand what we are trying to communicate. Yet it often fails. † The communication occurring between two people as discussed in the statement above is known by academics as ‘interpersonal communication’. Interpersonal communication can be defined as a two-way, transactional process in which two people, occupying a shared space, continue to send information to each other and receive information from each simultaneously. DeVito, 2008; Firth, Berry & Irvine, 2010; Hartley, 1999). The above statement refers to the process of interpersonal communication. Three clear assertions regarding the process of interpersonal communication are put forth in the statement above. Firstly, it is declared that the process of interpersonal communication is not simple. Secondly, it is declared that both verbal and non-verbal means are employed to foster the process of interpersonal communication. Lastly, it is declared that the process of interpersonal communication often is unsuccessful.This essay will discuss and analyse the above statement and the three assertions it puts forth in regards to the process of interpersonal communication. The interpersonal communication process is said to be comprised of five basic elements, which are: the sender of the information; the receiver of the information; the encoding of the information by the sender; the decoding of the information by the receiver; and the shared means or channel through which the information is sent (Shannon & Weaver, 1949, as cited Firth et al. , 2010).DeVito (2008) states there are additional elements which also have some part to play in the interpersonal communication process, these being: feedback from the receiver; feedforward by the sender; noise or interference impacting the interpersonal communication process; and the context or setting in which the communication process takes place. The statement above states that the process of interpersonal communication is often unsuccessful. DeVito (2008) suggests that such unsuccessful communication would be attributed to some of the elements of interpersonal communication either being present, absent or employed ineffectively by ender or receiver. Due to the process of interpersonal communication comprising of a number different elements, it can be concluded that the interpersonal communication process does have a certain degree of complexity as declared in the statement above. The statement being discussed also declares that for the process of interpersonal communication to be successful, verbal and non-verbal forms of information are broadcast by both the sender to facilitate understanding.DeVito (2008) states that verbal forms of information are essentially the actual words used by the sender and are chosen to: convey facts and inferences; express the connotation a word is being used in; and express sincerity or criticism. Hartley (1999) adds that the words a sender chooses to employ can communicate assertiveness and social standing. Though verbal communication is important in the interpersonal communication process, non-verbal communication conveys a far greater amount of information to the receiver (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010; Hartley, 1999).DeVito (2008) states non-verbal means of information transfer between sender and receiver include: body movements and gestures such as pointing with a finger; facial expressions and gestures such as smiles and frowns; the amount of and nature of eye contact present such as pupil dilatation and breaking or initiating gaze; the actual physical space between sender and receiver where closer space often indicates a greater level of intimacy between sender and receiver; the presence or absence of touch such as shaking hands or embracing; the use of paralanguage which involves the rate, tone and volume at which the sender speaks or the use of uttera nces; the sender’s view of the importance of time; artifactual communication which involves how one’s physical appearance, clothing, makeup, and material possessions are made known to the sender; and smell such as the presence of perfumes, deodorants, body odour, mouthwashes. Therefore a great amount of information is sent though verbal and non-verbal communication, which is also made up of many elements. As indicated before, a greater number of elements often results to a greater level of complexity, which is declared in the statement discussed. Though many forms of verbal and non-verbal information sent intentionally to the receiver, sometimes additional verbal nd non-verbal information sent to a receiver is sent unknowingly and unintentionally (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010). Most intentional information sent to a receiver is sent verbally and most unintentional information broadcast by a sender is unwittingly sent through non-verbal means (Firth et al. , 2010). Information that is unintentionally expressed by the sender impacts the message decoded and comprehended by the receiver, often leading to ineffective, unwanted or failed communication (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010; Hartley, 1999). Therefore, if the amount of unintentional information sent during the process of communication is reduced, the high chance of communication failure, suggested in the statement above, will be lessened to a degree.While encoding and conveying information in the interpersonal communication process, the sender employs a language they deem to be recognisable easily decoded by the receiver in an attempt to foster successful communication (Firth et al. , 2010). A language can be defined as any verbal or non-verbal manner or means employed to transmit information and understanding between groups of people (Firth et al. , 2010). Verbal and non-verbal messages expressed by should ideally have congruency, meaning they complement each other (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010). Incongruent verbal and non-verbal messages often lead to confusion in the receiver, hindering successful reception and comprehension of the information being communicated and therefore resulting in a failure in the communication process (Devito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010).Hence, congruent verbal and non-verbal messages encoded and communicated by sender will also aid in reducing the likeliness of communication failure. It has been suggested that a failure or breakdown in the interpersonal communication process can be further reduced if both the sender and receiver possess satisfactory levels of what is termed ‘emotional intelligence’ (Goleman, 1998; Lynn, 2002). Emotional intelligence may be defined as a person’s ability to recognise, control and evaluate their own feelings and emotions as well as the feelings and emotions of others (Goleman, 1998). Goleman (1998) states that emotional Intelligence is made up of five lements, these being: self-aw areness, self-regulation, self-motivation, empathy, and the possession of social skills. Self-awareness comprises of: the ability to recognise one’s emotions; awareness of one’s strengths, weaknesses and potential; and one’s ability to maintain a satisfactory sense of self-worth and confidence (Goleman, 1998). Self-regulation involves: one’s desire to maintain honestly; one’s ability to keep distracting emotions at bay; one’s ability to ensure a high level of performance in tasks; and the ability to manage and adapt suit to change (Goleman, 1998). Self-motivation requires one to have: a desire to excel; initiative to grasp given opportunities; and the desire to continue pursing goals whilst barriers are met (Goleman, 1998).Empathy involves one’s ability to: perceive other’s feelings; understand others points of view; and nurture others in developing their abilities (Goleman, 1998). A person with a high level of social skills wi ll be able to: listen openly and effectively send messages; negotiate well with others in times of conflict; inspire, guide others or successfully persuade others; collaborate well with others; bring about change; and effectively deal with change (Goleman, 1998). Therefore, possessing a high level of emotional intelligence involves possessing numerous skills. Lynn (2002) states that possessing emotional intelligence enables one to be aware of their own emotions and abilities, and allows one to hold confidence themselves, enabling the person to communicate confidently and effectively.It can be concluded that someone who possesses emotional intelligence is able to manage how they send, receive, encode and decode information. Elements which are of great importance in the interpersonal communication process (DeVito, 2008). Emotional intelligence in the sender and receiver will also impact the remaining elements of the interpersonal communication process. Feedforward is an element of the interpersonal communication process which enables the sender to attract the attention of the receiver before conveying their full message (DeVito, 2008). Feedforward can indicate to the receiver the nature or the importance of the information which is about to be provided to them by the sender (DeVito 2008).DeVito (2008) states that in the interpersonal communication process, feedforward can: open communication channels; provide a sample of what is about to be conveyed; disclaim the message; and altercast which lets the sender and receiver to assume specific roles during the interpersonal communication process. Feedforward therefore, is a good tactic the sender can employ to gain the attention of the receiver before important messages conveyed, heightening the chance of successful information reception. After conveying their message, the sender can make note of feedback given to them by the receiver (DeVito, 2008). Feedback is an element of interpersonal communication that relates to the information which is continually broadcast either immediately or after short delay by the receiver during the course of the interpersonal communication process (Devito, 2008).Feedback can come in the form of: body language such as hand gestures; eye contact such as breaking or initiating gaze; facial expressions such as smiles; silence which may indicate the receiver is disinterested in the interpersonal communication process; and the variation of distance the which may indicate how involved the receiver wants to be with the sender (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010). Feedback may be intentional or unintentional just like other forms of information broadcast during the interpersonal communication process (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010). By making note of of feedback, the sender can gain and understanding of how the receiver perceives the message (DeVito, 2008). The context associated with communication also affects how messages are encoded and decoded by the sender and re ceiver in the interpersonal communication process (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010).DeVito (2008) makes note of four dimensions communication takes place in: the physical dimension, which is the environment the sender and receiver communicate within and whether or not the environment promotes successful communication; the social-psychological dimension, which deals with the status, class or relationship between sender and receiver and how formal the communication should be; the temporal or time dimension, which deals with whether it is the appropriate time for a sender to convey a message; and the cultural dimension, which refers to beliefs, values, traditions and expectations that exist in the cultures of the sender and receiver whether certain forms of communication are appropriate. The channel or medium through which the information between sender and receiver is relayed has much influence upon successful encoding, decoding and comprehension (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010; Hartley, 1999). DeVito (2008) states some channels used in the interpersonal communication process are: verbal; non-verbal; auditory, which relates to sound; olfactory, which relates to smell; and tactile, which relates to touch.Different mediums include: letters; emails; phone calls; mobile phone text messaging; radio; television; the Internet; and print media such as newspapers and magazines (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010; Hartley, 1999). Proper use of the communication channels ensures that information travels between sender and receiver in a manner that facilitates accurate encoding and decoding (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010; Hartley, 1999). Therefore, it can be concluded that successful use and management of communication channels would further lessen the significant chance of communication failure that is alleged to exist in the interpersonal communication process by the statement being analysed.Failure in the interpersonal communication process can also be attributed to differing types of noise or interference that work against or and act as a barrier to successful communication (DeVito, 2008; Firth et al. , 2010). DeVito (2008) mentions four categories of noise: physical noise, which includes the noise occurring in the environment around the sender and receiver, along with apparel such as sunglasses which would interfere with eye contact; physiological noise, which includes physical disabilities the sender or receiver may have such as poor eyesight, hearing and tiredness; psychological noise, such as preconceived notions and other mental distractions; and semantic noise, which is where the receiver does not understand the language employed by the sender.It has been shown that the interpersonal communication process comprises of various complex elements which either facilitate or hinder successful communication. Successful communication requires information to be properly encoded by a sender, transferred with all attached meaning through a chan nel to a receiver who must successfully decode and comprehend the information sent to them as intended by the sender. Though there are barriers that obstruct successful communication, the possession of emotional intelligence, communicating effectively and maintaining congruency between non-verbal and verbal messages have been argued to reduce the great likelihood of communication failure, as declared in the statement being discussed.The success of interpersonal communication is decided heavily by the skills possessed by other the sender and receiver. References DeVito, J. A. (2008). The interpersonal communication book (12th ed. ). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Firth, G. , Berry, R. , & Irvine, C. (2010). Understanding intensive interaction: Context and concepts for professionals and families. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing. Hartley, P. (1999). Interpersonal communication (2nd ed. ) . New York, NY: Routledge. Lynn, A. B. (2002). The emotional intelligence activity book: 50 activities for developing eq at work. New York, NY: American Management Assosication.

December 26

December 26 December 26 December 26 By Maeve Maddox The day after Christmas, December 26 (according to the Western tradition), has its own holiday associations. St. Stephens Day, or the Feast of St. Stephen Saint Stephen is the protomartyr (first martyr) of the Christian church. Tradition says that Saul, later to be known as Saint Paul, held the coats of the men who stoned Stephen to death in the first century. In the Christmas carol Good King Wenceslas, the king (he was a 10th century Duke of Bohemia) looks out of his window on the Feast of Stephen and sees a poor man gathering winter fuel. King Wenceslas and a servant follow the man with gifts of food. Wren Day is observed on December 26 in Ireland, Wales, and on the Isle of Man. Also called Wrens day, Hunt the Wren Day or The Hunting of the Wrens, the observation is believed to have originated with the Druids in pre-Christian times. It has become conflated with the Christian Feast of Stephen. For details, see the Wikipedia article. Boxing Day is a public holiday in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Greece. Like many Americans, when I first saw Boxing Day on a calendar, I assumed that it had something to do with prize fighting. The box in Boxing Day, however, is a container, like a tip box or jar. On the day after Christmas, servants and other service providers received year-end tips and needed a box to put them in. Nowadays Boxing Day is a big shopping day for after-Christmas sales. Details here. Kwanzaa is a week-long celebration of African culture that begins on December 26 and ends on New Years Day. Created in 1966 by American Ron Everett Karenga, Kwanzaa is now observed around the world. You can learn more about the festival at the official Kwanzaa site. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Because Of" and "Due To" 50 Synonyms for â€Å"Idea†Preposition Mistakes #1: Accused and Excited

How Humans Contribute to Global Warming Essays

How Humans Contribute to Global Warming Essays How Humans Contribute to Global Warming Paper How Humans Contribute to Global Warming Paper Lately, the earth has been showing many signs of climate change. It is not cooling down at all causing the presence of global warming. Global warming can be defined as an increase in the earths atmospheric and oceanic temperatures widely predicted to occur due to an increase in the greenhouse effect resulting especially from pollution (Merriam-Webster, 2012). This paper will explain why human activity is a substantial cause of global warming and discuss what can be done by the human race to stop global warming. According to National Geographic, Levels of greenhouse gases (Gigs) have gone up and down over the Earths history, but they have men fairly constant for the past few thousand years (National Geographic, 2012). Over the past few years there has been some record high and low temperatures. Through the burning of fossil fuels and other GOGH emissions, humans are enhancing the greenhouse effect and warming Earth (National Geographic, 2012). Radiation from the sun is trapped instead of being released back into the atmosphere when greenhouse gases are present. This causes the temperatures to rise while creating negative effect for our environment (Turk Bunsen, 201 1, Section 7. 1 Greenhouse effect can e defined as the global warming of our atmosphere caused by the presence of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which trap the suns radiation (Turk Bunsen, 2011, Section 7. 1). Nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide are all greenhouse gases. Nitrous oxide can be produced naturally and by human activity. Primary human-related sources of NON are agricultural soil management, animal manure management, sewage treatment, mobile and stationary combustion of fossil fuel, dipodic acid production, and nitric acid production (EPA. Gob). Methane is produced by cetera in the stomachs of ruminants such as sheep, cattle, and goats and is farted and belched out by the animals (Global Action Network, 2005). Methane can be minimized by changing the diets in farm animals. Feeding them grass only is a good way to do this. According to Eagerest, man-made CA emissions account for about 77% of man-made greenhouse gas emissions and roughly 3% of the earths greenhouse effect (Eagerest, 2011). There are many factories and power plants that burn oil, coal, and natural gases when making their products. These gases are released into the atmosphere, polluting the air we breathe, contributing to global warming. There are many disadvantages when it comes to global warming. Imagine if all the ice peaks melted. The sea levels would be overflows causing floods to occur which may force people to relocate. Global warming contributes to our weather patterns causing tornados, hurricanes, or strong thunder storms. During many of these storms, heavy rainfall is present causing floods in our communities. Most of the time when floods are present, a boil water advisory is put into place. This is done to reduce illnesses caused by water contamination. Global warming contributes to forest fires. The warm air dries UT the forest making it easier for fires to start. These forest fires eventually destroy many of our natural resources. Forest destruction is also caused by humans. Humans use the space to build businesses, homes, and highways. As a result, the homes of many species are invaded. My subdivision Was all woods at one point or another. Quite often, I see deer, rabbits, and wild turkeys in my backyard. The high temperatures from global warming destroy farmers crops. These temperatures affect the crops growth and may even burn them. As a result, there are food shortages which could possibly dead to starvation in humans. In addition many scientists argue that global warming is causing extreme weather events that often lead to crop failures (Rosenthal, 201 1). The warmer temperatures cause lakes to dry reducing our water supply as well as the quality of our water. Global warming contributes to air pollution. Polluted air can cause humans to suffer from respiratory problems, such as asthma or allergies, lung disease, and eye irritation, The World Health Organization estimates that the warming and precipitation trends due to anthropogenic climate change of the past 30 years already lain over 1 50,000 lives annually (Path, Campbell, Holloway ; Foley, 2005). Climate changes threaten the health of humans in many ways. High temperatures can cause humans to have heat strokes. It also increases chances for diseases such as the West Nile Virus. Mosquitoes carrying this disease is more active in warmer temperatures. In 201 0, the American Lung Association estimated that about 23 million Americans suffered from asthma (Knowles, 201 1). Human activity is not the only factor contributing to global warming. There IS a natural process that contributes to global warming as well. Plants, both on land and in the oceans, continually absorb and release large amounts of carbon dioxide (Eagerest, 2011). Plants absorb carbon dioxide when they grow and release carbon dioxide as they decay (Eagerest, 2011). Forest fires, volcanoes, droughts and Other natural phenomena can affect the natural rate of carbon dioxide uptake and release (Eagerest. 2011 There are many advantages when it comes to global warming. However, they will never outweigh the disadvantages. There will be less need for energy consumptions to warm cold places when it comes to global warming. Without the greenhouse effect, scientists estimate that the average enrapture on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem (Spencer, 2012). This means that there will be fewer chances for humans to become infected with bacteria causing diseases. The human race can take actions to stop global warming. In order to do this, humans must decrease the amount of fossil fuels and start using energy more wisely. Humans can begin by doing their part to reduce waste by reusing reusable products such as cloth diapers instead of the disposable ones, recycling paper, plastic, glass, and aluminum cans. Humans can use less energy daily to help control global warming by reducing the amount of energy to cool or heat your home. Humans can also use less energy by replacing regular light bulbs with fluorescent light bulbs and using more energy efficient products. Turning off lights and electronics when they are not in use will help reduce energy. Washing clothes Or dishes with cold Water instead of hot water will help reduce energy. Carpooling or taking public transportation can help eliminate polluting the air with greenhouse gases. While greenhouse gases are necessary to warm Earth, human activity expedites this warming and is a absentia cause of global warming. Carbon dioxide and other global warming pollutants are collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the suns heat and causing the planet to warm up (Knowles, 2011). Global warming causes many changes in our atmosphere. It is not good for our environment at all. It contributes to the health and well-being of humans, animals life, and natural resources destroyed. The floods, rise in sea levels, hotter than normal summers, and early winters that we have had lately are implications of global warming. Although local temperatures fluctuate durably, over the past 50 years the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history (Spencer, 2012). Scientists say that unless we curb the emissions that cause climate change, average U. S. Temperatures could be 3 to 9 degrees higher by the end of the century (Spencer, 2012). As humans, we must take advantage of recycling paper, glass, plastic, and cans. Using these recycled products will help to eliminate many greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Humans must do a better job at preserving our natural resources.

Dorothy Day, Founder of the Catholic Worker Movement

Dorothy Day, Founder of the Catholic Worker Movement Dorothy Day was a writer and editor who founded the Catholic Worker, a penny newspaper that grew into a voice for the poor during the Great Depression. As the driving force in what became a movement, Days unwavering advocacy for charity and pacifism made her controversial at times. Yet her work among the poorest of the poor also made her an admired example of a deeply spiritual person actively engaged in addressing societys problems. When Pope Francis addressed the U.S. Congress in September 2015, he focused much of his speech on  four Americans he found particularly inspiring: Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King, Dorothy Day, and Thomas Merton. Days name was no doubt unfamiliar to millions watching the Popes speech on television. But his effusive praise of her indicated how influential her lifes work with the Catholic Worker Movement was to the Popes own thoughts about social justice. Fast Facts: Dorothy Day Born: November 8, 1897, New York City.Died: November 29, 1980, New York City.Founder of the Catholic Worker, a small newspaper published in the Depression which became a social movement.Named by Pope Francis in his 2015 speech to Congress as one of his four most admired Americans.Is widely expected to be declared a saint in the Catholic Church. During her lifetime, Day could seem out of step with mainstream Catholics in America. She operated at the fringe of organized Catholicism, never seeking permission or official endorsement for any of her projects. Day came late to the faith, converting to Catholicism as an adult in the 1920s. At the time of her conversion, she was an unmarried mother with a complicated past that included life as a bohemian writer in Greenwich Village, unhappy love affairs, and an abortion that rendered her emotionally devastated. A movement to have Dorothy Day canonized as a saint in the Catholic Church began in the 1990s. Days own family members have said she would have scoffed at the idea. Yet it seems likely that she will one day be an officially recognized saint of the Catholic Church. Early Life Dorothy Day was born in Brooklyn, New York, on November 8, 1897. She was the third of five children born to John and Grace Day. Her father was a journalist who bounced from job to job, which kept the family moving between New York City neighborhoods and then onward to other cities. When her father was offered a job in San Francisco in 1903, the Days moved westward. Economic disruption caused by the San Francisco earthquake three years later cost her father his job, and the family moved on to Chicago. By the age of 17, Dorothy had already completed two years of study at the University of Illinois. But she abandoned her education in 1916  when she and her family moved back to New York City. In New York, she began writing articles for socialist newspapers. With her modest earnings, she moved into a small apartment on the Lower East Side. She became fascinated by the vibrant yet difficult  lives of impoverished immigrant communities, and Day became an obsessive walker, ferreting out stories in the citys poorest neighborhoods. She was hired as a reporter by the New York Call, a socialist newspaper, and began contributing articles to a revolutionary magazine, The Masses. Bohemian Years As America entered World War I and a patriotic wave swept the country, Day found herself immersed in a life filled with politically radical, or  simply offbeat, characters in Greenwich Village. She became a Village resident, living in a succession of cheap apartments and spending time in tearooms and saloons frequented by writers, painters, actors, and political activists. Day began a platonic friendship with playwright Eugene ONeill, and for a period during World War I, she entered a training program to become a nurse. After leaving the nursing program at the wars end, she became romantically involved with a journalist, Lionel Moise. Her affair with Moise ended after she had an abortion, an experience that sent her into a period of depression and intense inner turmoil. She met Forster Batterham through literary friends in New York and began living with him in a rustic cabin near the beach on Staten Island (which, in the early 1920s, was still rural). They had a daughter, Tamar, and after the birth of her child Day began to feel a sense of religious awakening. Though neither Day or Batterham were Catholic, Day took Tamar to a Catholic church on Staten Island and had the child baptized. The relationship with Batterham became difficult and the two often separated. Day, who had published a novel based on her Greenwich Village years, was able to purchase a modest cottage on Staten Island and she created a life for herself and Tamar. To escape the winter weather along the Staten Island shore, Day and her daughter would live in sublet apartments in Greenwich Village during the coldest months. On December 27, 1927, Day took a life-changing step by riding a  ferry back to Staten Island, visiting the Catholic church she knew, and having herself baptized. She later said she felt no great joy in the action, but rather regarded it as something she had to do. Finding Purpose Day continued writing and taking jobs as a researcher for publishers. A play she had written hadnt been produced, but somehow came to the attention of a Hollywood movie studio, which offered her a writing contract. In 1929 she and Tamar took a train to California, where she joined the staff of Pathà © Studios. Days Hollywood career was short. She found the studio not terribly interested in her contributions. And when the stock market crash in October 1929 hit the movie industry hard, her contract was not renewed. In a car she had purchased with her studio earnings, she and Tamar relocated to Mexico City. She returned to New York the following year. And after a trip to Florida to visit her parents, she and Tamar settled in a small apartment on 15th Street, not far from Union Square, where sidewalk speakers advocated solutions to the misery of the Great Depression. In December 1932 Day, returning to journalism, traveled to Washington, D.C. to cover a march against hunger for Catholic publications. While in Washington she visited the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception on December 8, the Catholic Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception.   She later recalled she had been losing her faith in the Catholic Church over its apparent indifference to the poor. Yet as she prayed at the shrine she began to sense a purpose to her life. After  returning to New York City, an eccentric character turned up in Days life, someone she regarded as a teacher who may have been sent by the Virgin Mary. Peter Maurin was a French immigrant who worked as a laborer in America though he had taught at schools run by the Christian Brothers in France. He was a frequent speaker in Union Square, where he would advocate novel, if not radical, solutions for societys ills. Founding of the Catholic Worker Maurin sought  out Dorothy Day after reading some of her articles about social justice. They began spending time together, talking and arguing. Maurin suggested Day should start her own newspaper. She said she had doubts about finding the money to get a paper printed, but Maurin encouraged her, saying they needed to have faith that the funds would appear. Within months, they did manage to raise enough money to print their newspaper. On May 1, 1933, a gigantic May Day demonstration was held at Union Square in New York. Day, Maurin, and a group of friends hawked the first copies of the Catholic Worker. The four-page newspaper cost a penny. The New York Times described the crowd  in Union Square that day as being filled with communists, socialists, and assorted other radicals. The newspaper noted the presence of banners denouncing sweatshops, Hitler, and the Scottsboro case. In that setting, a newspaper focused on helping the poor and achieving social justice was a hit. Every copy sold. That  first issue of the Catholic Worker contained a column by Dorothy Day which outlined its purpose. It began: For those who are sitting on park benches in the warm spring sunlight.For those who are huddling in shelters trying to escape the rain.For those who are walking the streets in the all but futile search for work.For those who think that there is no hope for the future, no recognition of their plight - this little paper is addressed.It is printed to call their attention to the fact that the Catholic Church has a social program - to let them know that there are men of God who are working not only for their spiritual, but for their material welfare. The success of the newspaper continued. In a lively and informal office, Day, Maurin, and what became a regular cast of dedicated souls labored to produce an issue every month. Within a few years, the circulation reached 100,000, with copies being mailed to all regions of America.   Dorothy Day wrote a column in each issue, and her contributions continued for nearly 50 years, until her death in 1980. The archive of her columns represents a remarkable view of modern American history, as she began commenting on the plight of the poor in the Depression and moved on to the violence of the world at war, the Cold War, and protests of the 1960s. Dorothy Day addressing a protest against the Vietnam War.   Getty Images Prominence and Controversy Beginning with her youthful writings for socialist newspapers, Dorothy Day was often been out of step with mainstream America. She was arrested for the first time in 1917, while picketing the White House with suffragists demanding that women have the right to vote. In prison, at the age of 20, she was beaten by the police, and the experience made her even more sympathetic to the oppressed and powerless in society. Within years of its 1933 founding as a small newspaper, the Catholic Worker evolved into being a social movement. Again with Peter Maurins influence, Day and her supporters opened soup kitchens in New York City. The feeding of the poor continued for years, and the Catholic Worker also opened houses of hospitality offering places to stay for the homeless. For years the Catholic Worker also operated a communal farm near Easton, Pennsylvania. Besides writing for the Catholic Worker newspaper, Day traveled extensively, giving talks on social justice and meeting activists, both inside and outside the Catholic Church. She was at times suspected of holding subversive political views, but in a sense she operated outside of politics. When followers of the Catholic Worker Movement refused to participate in Cold War fallout shelter drills, Day and others were arrested. She was later arrested while protesting with union farm workers in California. She remained active until her death, in her room at a Catholic Worker residence in New York City, on November 29, 1980. She was buried on Staten Island, near the site of her conversion. Legacy of Dorothy Day In the decades since her death, the influence of Dorothy Day has grown. A number of books have been written about her, and several anthologies of her writings have been published. The Catholic Worker community continues to flourish, and the newspaper which first sold for a penny in Union Square still publishes seven times a year in a print edition. An extensive archive, including all of Dorothy Days columns is available for free online. More than 200 Catholic Worker communities exist in the United States and other countries. Perhaps the most noteworthy tribute to Dorothy Day was, of course, the comments by Pope Francis in his address to Congress on September 24, 2015. He said:   In these times when social concerns are so important, I cannot fail to mention the Servant of God Dorothy Day, who founded the Catholic Worker Movement. Her social activism, her passion for justice and for the cause of the oppressed, were inspired by the Gospel, her faith, and the example of the saints. Near the end of his speech, the Pope again spoke of Days striving for justice: A nation can be considered great when it defends liberty as Lincoln did, when it fosters a culture which enables people to dream of full rights for all their brothers and sisters, as Martin Luther King sought to do; when it strives for justice and the cause of the oppressed, as Dorothy Day did by her tireless work, the fruit of a faith which becomes dialogue and sows peace in the contemplative style of Thomas Merton. With the leaders of the Catholic Church praising her work, and others continually discovering her writings, the legacy of Dorothy Day, who found her purpose editing a penny newspaper for the poor, seems assured.

International Business (international trade) the title of the research Dissertation

International Business (international trade) the title of the research is the impact of Free trade agreement on New Zealand Econ - Dissertation Example 24 4 Findings & Conclusion 26 5 References 29 6 List of Tables and Graphs 32 Abstract Many past empirical evidences had found that FTA (Free Trade Agreements) is likely to boost bilateral trade flows, to assist to attain economic growth and to create new employment openings driven by export directed development in the economy of partner nations. In most of the FTAs, the advantages derived due to FTAs are likely to overshadow the cost involved especially in the long run. FTAs will likely to result in tariff minimisation in the majority of the products traded between the nations. This research paper will endeavour to examine whether FTAs entered by New Zealand (NZ) with Australia , China , and ASEAN has helped the NZ economy to grow further or not and whether NZ derived much benefits from such FTAs like employment creation , technology transfer , increased standard of living , simplification of customs procedures , trade expansion and overall economic growth by investigating into the e arlier empirical evidence available on the subject and statistics offered by the respective governments. (â€Å"Ali, 2011, p.1†). ... und a buyer for his product in Australia, and the Australian importer has to pay a tariff of 20% meaning for $100 product imported from NZ , an Australian has to pay $120 ( cost of material + tariff) . However, under NZ and Australia FTA agreement, these products can enter into Australia without tariff and vice-versa. The preferential tariff rates under FTA make NZ products cheaper for Australians. The elimination of tariff offers the NZ, a competitive benefit over other nations that do not have FTA with Australia. Thus, FTAs make NZ producers and exporters more competitive both in abroad and domestically. (â€Å"Renda, 2013, p.1†). A FTA has the following advantages: Safeguards NZ investments in the partner’s nation Offer new market access for NZ manufacturers and consumers Offer market access to remanufactured products Trade-in-services will get a fillip Offers advantages to medium and small exporters of both the nation Enhances custom facilitation (Garnaut, 2002, p.1 25). If we analyse the economic growth rates of nations that have FTAs with the developing nations, as indicated by GDP, we can find that in many cases, it has surpassed those of advanced economies. NZ companies exporting to Australia enjoy double benefits with ever growing consumer bases and low tariff rates. In spite of recent global economic crisis, FTA has facilitated many small nations to sustain the growth and to maintain the same in the coming years also whereas advanced economies are in turmoil. (Barry, 2012, p1). 1-2 History of Free Trade Agreements As per Dent (2007), the regionalised and imperial trade arrangements that existed between Middle East, China, Europe and India have given birth to the international trade systems. The first ever world trade system had the origin from the gradual

Austin Farrer Can Myth be Fact Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Austin Farrer Can Myth be Fact - Essay Example During the early ages, the human mind was very undemanding. They had a strong belief in legends to interpret their everyday living and it was through these myths that they identified themselves. The myths which included examples of the rewards that were given to the people who were kind by the gods were implied by people in their lives. But with the passing time, want and search for knowledge led the human beings to challenge these myths. It was then left to the historians and the philosophers to work and argue regarding these legends. But immediately following this period was the emergence of Christianity which worked to save the myths. It was then explained that God had provided the mortals with a confined thought which they used to analyze the infinite truths that were given to them by God. The words that they used were a giving of God and it was through this that they constructed myths. Hence since the initial creator of the myth was God, therefore the myth must be a reality. Another justification which closely relates a myth to truth is the explanation provided by the believers who claim that God lies in the â€Å"nature† that exists around us. To strengthen this fact, it can be seen that principles exist for the physics of matter. An example to support this is the idea that the temperature at which water boils is constant. This physical law of water is not told to us by nature but it is rather through research and knowledge that we understand this fact. Hence the myths and legends are a part of everything that exists around us and these form the cultural and religious laws of nature which are to be understood and analyzed by the human beings themselves. The myths are legends which drove human beings to perform acts which would otherwise be termed as ridiculous. For instance the prayers performed by people to end a situation of drought so that water could be received. A believer in religion and God would definitely

Describing myself in terms of the 5 factor model Essay

Describing myself in terms of the 5 factor model - Essay Example Each human being has different and unique personality traits. Psychologists usually take tests to find out the personality type. These tests contain a list of objective questions that find out the behavior, insight, opinion and reaction of human beings in different situations. It finds out the way human being differ with each other in their enduring emotional, interpersonal, experiential, motivational and attitudinal style. According to the answers provided in the test, a score is calculated for every personality dimension and seen in respect of general population. (McCrae & Oliver , 2006) I also took the IPIP Personality test online from http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP and found out my results. Let's look at each of the five factor model according to my personality and then match my take on these with the results of the test. OPENNESS: Openness to experience relates to one's flexibility to new ideas and openness to change. It signifies that the person welcomes and accepts new ideas, experiences, people, thoughts and situations. People who are 'open to experience' usually appreciate arts, science, music, emotions, and adventure. They tend to be very imaginative, creative, and like to have a variety of different experiences. They are less conservative and stick more to traditional ways. They are usually suspicious about newer ideas and are not comfortable with abstract thoughts and ideas. I think I am slightly more 'open to experience' than general people. I love creativity and new experiences. Throughout my school life, I have been involved in various different experiences. I have participated in debates, I have studied psychology and have taken huge interest in studying business as well, I have been in sports and I am also into reading. This all combines to make me a person with diverse set of experiences. I am thrilled by newer ideas. Whenever I take up a project, I look for creative and out-of-the-box ideas. I believe that one thing can be done in seve ral ways and I always give it a try. I love to travel and go on adventures. Although I am a little afraid of heights but the idea of mountain climbing, hiking and adventurous sports thrill me. Sometimes I hold back due to fear but then I try to calm myself and give these things a go. It is because I love to have thrill and excitement in my life. My being openness to change however does not mean that I do not stay with my traditional values. I am a firm believer of my religion and I like sticking to rules. I like adventure and new ideas but only if they do not contradict with my beliefs. For example I like to have thrill in my life but I would never break rules to do so. I also enjoy the traditional events and festivals with the people around me. My Results: "My result for Openness to Experience is average, indicating that I enjoy tradition but are willing to try new things. My thinking is neither simple nor complex. To others I appear to be a well-educated person but not an intellec tual." My score is 41. The result signifies that I have an average Openness to experience or change. This is slightly different from what

Distribution Channels and Role of Advertising in Marketing Essay

Distribution Channels and Role of Advertising in Marketing - Essay Example Role of Advertising in Marketing Once an organization has finished making a product and distributed it to local retailers, they need to be able to convince the consumer to purchase the product. Unless a consumer is told and informed about a particular product, then it is likely that they will not buy it because they don’t know anything about it. This is why advertising is so important. Advertising is only one part of a marketing campaign, but it is perhaps the most vital. The most common method to do this is through persuasion. Consumers need a valid reason before purchasing a product, so it is important to give them a few. The marketing department of an organization does not just put out advertisements at random; often surveys or focus groups are used to determine how well the advertisement of a product will go down with a consumer. There are many different ways to advertise a product, such as through television, radio, billboards, or even social media. This last method is becoming extremely popular in toda y’s global environment because it is often free and can reach a wide range of people.It is important that any form of advertising is positive, because a bad advertising campaign can have a negative effect on a brand.It can take months and even years for a company to restore its reputation with the public.

Code of Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Code of Ethics - Essay Example They need to be aware of the things that can get them fired. Sanitation hazards need to be taken very seriously. The littlest thing could turn away a customer, and perhaps lead to a lawsuit. When dealing with food, all precautions need to be taken. A lot of businesses require wearing gloves, having your hair pulled back, and no visible piercing or tattoos. Jan Norman, publisher for The Standard-Times stated, "A lot of people are offended when they see people in the workplace with piercings and tattoos." (Norman, p.1) When dealing with other people's food, all of those things are turn-offs. After touching your hair or face, going to the bathroom, or any other contact with yourself or another person, the person should immediately wash their hands. OHS states, "Hand washing reduces the risk of Common Infections." (p.1) Putting up signs for the employees to remind them to pull back their hair, and remove any visible piercing such as from the nose, eyebrow, lip or tongue. All of this affects the businesses as well. By sanitation standards not being met, stated by Occupational Health and Safety, this can cause businesses to be shut down. So employers need to keep close watch on employees." (OHS,P.1) Every day consumers are more concerned with sanitation especially when it concerns their food. There are so many bacterias that can be spread.

Distribution Channels and Role of Advertising in Marketing Essay

Distribution Channels and Role of Advertising in Marketing - Essay Example Role of Advertising in Marketing Once an organization has finished making a product and distributed it to local retailers, they need to be able to convince the consumer to purchase the product. Unless a consumer is told and informed about a particular product, then it is likely that they will not buy it because they don’t know anything about it. This is why advertising is so important. Advertising is only one part of a marketing campaign, but it is perhaps the most vital. The most common method to do this is through persuasion. Consumers need a valid reason before purchasing a product, so it is important to give them a few. The marketing department of an organization does not just put out advertisements at random; often surveys or focus groups are used to determine how well the advertisement of a product will go down with a consumer. There are many different ways to advertise a product, such as through television, radio, billboards, or even social media. This last method is becoming extremely popular in toda y’s global environment because it is often free and can reach a wide range of people.It is important that any form of advertising is positive, because a bad advertising campaign can have a negative effect on a brand.It can take months and even years for a company to restore its reputation with the public.

Seminar Paper for One of Us Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Seminar Paper for One of Us - Essay Example Thus, anatomy as a whole can dictate who can do something and who cannot. Dreger notes that sometimes anatomy helps in maintaining order by protecting the vulnerable and restricting privilege. Almost on a daily basis, people change their bodies ever so slightly in order to fit the identity that they wish to present socially. Dreger provides myriad instances that reveal just how much anatomy matters in somewhat unexpected ways (Dreger 2). She points out that even in the Holy Bible, priests were required to have perfect bodies similarly women were not allowed to join priesthood. This can also be illustrated in the case of the conjoined twins who visit a bar only for the bartender to demand for identification from one of the twins who seemed physically younger than her twin. However, Dreger reveals that â€Å"hearing the bartender’s request, the other twin turns around so that she’s the one facing the bartender. Because the second twin appears older, the bartender reconsiders and decides to serve the drink without seeing the proof of time† (Dreger 1). Additionally, anatomy has also interfered with other legal formalities like in the case of the dwarfs whereby their dwarfism prevented the bartender from asking for their identification to verify in the quest of trying to avoid embarrassi ng or devaluing them. Among the examples that Dreger implies when talking about the problems that will be along anatomy identity lines in the 21st century include the issue of racism that has been vibrant in the past years and is expected to continue. Dreger (9) expresses that based on anatomy, one is either black in which the â€Å"whites are seen as inherently superior to all other races†. Subsequently, Dreger also seems to address the issue of scientific innovations and research activities that are on the raise in this 21st century. These innovations such as Botox, a medically antiwrinkle treatment, imply that the world still continues to value anatomy

Biculturism and Marginalization Essay Example for Free

Biculturism and Marginalization Essay * Ross-Sheriff (2011) commented that international migration patterns have * changed as a consequence of broad social, political, economic, and environmental * trends and explained the causes of the driving forces were including war, * globalization, urbanization, and changing cultural norms regarding social roles and * responsibilities (Ross-Sheriff, 2011). With these complex trends of migration * patterns, Van Hear (2010) viewed migration as a process which was an integral part * of broader social transformations, but which also had its own internal dynamics with * other factors related to the migrating process, shaping social transformation in their * own way. Migration was also linked in complex ways to class, gender, generation, * ethnicity and other social factors, which were embodied in positions in home and host * communities, and in work and domestic relationships, all of which might be * transformed in the course of the migratory process (Van Hear, 2010). To understand this complex process of migration, especially under changing circumstances of one culture to another, it might be useful to build conceptual tools for understanding these transitory processes in migration studies and in social science more widely (Van hear, 2010). They also include mediating agents and transitions that need also to be accounted for, as well as intersections among class, gender, generation, ethnicity and other social ruptures as well as the main driving forces of migration (Van Hear, 2010). Of course there were other important concepts such as relations between time and space, between dynamics or processes and outcomes, and between structure and agency that needed to get attention (Van Hear, 2010). However, it is impossible to discuss all different theoretical concepts involved in different types of migration process in the current limited study. Rather, this study tried to focus on psychological impacts such as ethnic identity and self-esteem on migration through acculturation processes particularly on family- related migration because different patterns of migration produced different communities and resulted in producing different migrant identities including varying levels of psychological distress (Jones, 2008). Further, few empirical studies have focused on migrant adults populations. Most migrants identification related literatures tended to relate more for adolescents or young children because identity formation might be particularly challenging in this cohort, especially when the values and beliefs of their natal culture differed significantly from those of the host society (Sodowsky, Kwan, Pannu, 1995; as cited in Farver, Narang, Bhadha, 2002). Therefore, this study focused on ethnic identity and self-identification issues of adult migrants’ themselves within a family structure according to different theoretical models relevant to adaptation of new cultures, because family was the basic instrument in the society (Nesdale, Rooney, Smith, 1997). In fact, most cultural acquisition theories developed and evolved in 1990s. when international migration became a key issue in international politics at the beginning of 1990s. As Castle (2002) argued that migration, development and international relations were closely connected as migration was a major factor of transformation for both sending and receiving countries for different types of migrants (Castle, 2002). With this perspective, this study generally focused on those migration culture acquisition theories developed in 1990 rather then looking at current perspectives in the most recent literatures, which actually have evolved from these original theories in 1990s (Castle, 2002). As the findings from these research studies has had been mixed or sometimes contradictory, it was important to understand the exact nature of the relationship between migrant ethnic identification and the acculturation process both need to be specified and assessed properly with coherent measurements and theoretical assumptions (Nesdale et al. , 1997). Important theoretical concepts: ethnic identity, acculturation, biculturism, and marginalisation. According to Phinney (1990; as cited in Farver, Narang Bhadha., 2002), ethnic identity and acculturation were related but separate constructs. Ethnic identity involves an individual’s self-identification as a group member, a sense of belonging to an ethnic group, attitudes toward ethnic group of membership, and degree of ethnic group involvement (Farver et al. , 2002). The term acculturation was defined in anthropology as those phenomena, which resulted when groups of individuals having different cultures came into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original pattern of either or both groups (Redfield, Linton, Herskovits, 1936; as cited in Birman, 1994). Although acculturation was a neutral term in this context (that is, change might take place in either or both groups), in practice, acculturation tended to induce more changes in one of the groups than in the other (Berry, 1990a; as cited in Berry, 1997) Berry (1997) argued that in all plural societies, cultural groups and their individual members, in both dominant and non-dominant situations, must deal with the issue of how to acculturate. According to Berry (1997), four acculturation strategies were introduced: assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration. When individuals do not wish to maintain their cultural identity and seek daily interaction with other new cultures, the assimilation strategy is defined. In contrast, when individuals place a value on holding on to their original culture, and at the same time wish to avoid interaction with others, then the separation is defined (Berry, 1997). When there is an interest in both maintaining one’s original culture, while in daily interactions with other groups, integration is the option; here, there is some degree of cultural integrity maintained, while at the same time seeking to participate as an integral part of the larger social network (Berry, 1997). Last, when there is little possibility or interest in cultural maintenance (often for reasons of enforced cultural loss), and little interest in having relations with others (often for reasons of exclusion or discrimination) then marginalization is defined (Berry, 1997). However, this acculturation categories model has been criticized methodologically (Rudmin, 2003, 2009; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) because all four of Berry’s categories were represented in the same way by creating the two by two matrix of acculturation categories between high and low. However, the cut off point between high and low was arbitrary and would differ across samples, making comparisons across studies difficult, resulting in the fact that all four categories existed and were equally valid (Rudmin, 2003; as cited in Schwartz et al., 2010) and suggesting that not all of Berry’s categories might exist in a given sample or population, and that some categories might have multiple subtypes (Schwartz et al. , 2010). In particular, Berry (1997) viewed the term â€Å"biculturism† as referring to acculturation that involved the individual simultaneously in the two cultures that were in contact in integrative ways, which appeared to be a consistent predictor of more positive outcomes than the three alternatives of assimilation, separation, or marginalization. Berry and his colleagues (Sam Berry, 1995) assessed the acculturation strategies of various immigrant groups in North America and the results showed that bicultural individuals experienced less acculturative stress, anxiety and fewer psychological problems significantly, while marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including problems with self-identification and cultural alienation, which adversely affected their self-esteem (Farver et al. , 2002). However, Shiraev and Levy (2007) explained acculturative stress as a negative feeling that a marginalized person might experience as a distressing psychological reaction to any unfamiliar cultural environment based on the assumption that person and groups undergoing any social and cultural change should experience a certain amount of psychological distress. Generally, many early definitions of acculturation focused on exposure to two cultures simultaneously as a culture shock, which was a reactive state of specific pathology or deficit, rather than taking advantage of being bicultural (Berry Annis, 1974; Shiraev et al., 2007). The validity of marginalization as an approach to acculturation by Berry (1997) was also questioned (Del Pilar Udasco, 2004; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). Schawartz et al. argued that the likelihood that a person would develop a cultural sense of self without drawing on either the heritage or receiving cultural contexts would be less likely to. The marginalization approach might be true only for the small segment of migrants who rejected both their heritage and receiving cultures (Berry, 2006b). Indeed, studies using empirically based clustering methods have found small or nonexistent marginalization groups and scales that attempted to measure marginalization typically had poor reliability and validity compared with scales for the other categories (Cuellar, Arnold, Maldonado, 1995; Unger et al. , 2002; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). As described earlier, the impact of migrant ethnic identity on psychological distress had comparatively diverse points of views if they were either negative or positive reactions, depending on different theoretical frames. For example, Social Identity Theory (Tajfel Turner, 2001) and Self-Categorization Theory (Turner, 1987) emphasized more on the importance to individuals of their identification with particular social groups. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel Turner, 2001; as cited in Yip, Gee, Takeuchi, 2008) viewed a possible explanation for why ethnic identity might buffer the effects of discrimination. According to this theory,individuals chose from an array of possible social identity groups and, once those groups were chosen, individuals focused on the positive aspects of their in-group, which helped to boost their own esteem, suggesting that ethnic identity was more important to their overall identity (Yip et al. , 2009). In contrast, if ethnicity was a central component of ones identity, it might actually exacerbate the effects of discrimination, resulting in a greater negative impact on mental health, according to self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell, 1987; as cited in Yip et al., 2008), suggesting that people should be more in tune with environmental cues that were relevant to an important aspect of their identity. That is, experiences of racial discrimination might be such a cue relevant to their ethnic identity. Indeed, research suggested that African American adults and adolescents who reported strong racial centrality were also more likely to report experiences of racial discrimination (Neblett, Shelton, Sellers, 2004; Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, Zimmerman, 2003; Sellers Shelton, 2003; as cited in Yip et al., 2008). However, despite this emphasis by social theorists, they tended to forget the larger literature that involved with both ethnicity and the acculturation process (Liebkind, 1993; 1996; as cited in Nesdale, Rooney Smith, 1997). First of all, these different findings resulted from lack of inclusion of acculturation itself as a variable methodologically when acculturation was considered as a phenomenon in research designs (Sam and Berry, 2006). Without including acculturation as a variable, the explanations for human behavior similarities and differences across populations would remain incomplete (Sam et al. , 2006). Second, a further criticism of the acculturation literatures was that the same two acculturation processes, and the same four-acculturation categories, characterized all migrants equally—regardless of the type of migrant, the countries of origin and settlement, and the ethnic group in question, according to Berry’s (1980) model and other similar approaches (Sam et al., 2006). Finally, the vast majority of studies in the acculturation literature have focused on behavioral acculturation (Schwartz et al. , 2010). That is, most widely used acculturation measures included primarily (or only) items assessing language use and other cultural practices (e. g. , Cuellar, Arnold, Maldonado, 1995; Stephenson, 2000; Szapocznik, Kurtines, Fernandez, 1980; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) due to accepting the fact that cultural practices might provide only a fair proxy for cultural adaptation (Schwartz et al., 2010). Theoretical frameworks for acculturation research Shiraev Levy (2007) claimed that cross-cultural psychologists usually used three approaches to examine human activities in various cultural settings. They were the sociobiological approach, the sociological approach and eco-cultural approach (Shiraev et al. , 2007). In particular, the eco-cultural approach emphasized both the environment and the individual were seen as open and interchanging systems (Shiraev et al., 2007), introducing John Berry whom originally developed this theory further in contemporary cross-cultural psychology. Shiraev et al. (2007) also pointed out that specialists should to be able to explain how, why, and to what extent people differed from one another, when ecological, biological, cultural, and acculturation factors were identified and taken into consideration (Berry, J. W. , Poortinga, Y. H. , Segall, M. H. , Dasen. P. R. ,1992; as cited in Shiraev et al. , 2007). In related to the concerns pointed by Shiraev et al. (2007), Berry (1997) argued earlier there were important links between cultural context and individual behavioural development, demonstrating what happened to individuals who developed in one cultural context when attempting to re-establish their lives in another one through his acculturation research framework, by confirming the fact that acculturation was one of the most complex areas of research in cross-cultural psychology because the process involved more than one culture and in two distinct senses (Berry, 1997). According to Berry (1997), the concept of acculturation was employed to refer to the cultural changes resulting from different ethnic groups encountered, while the concepts of psychological acculturation and adaptation were employed to refer to the psychological changes and eventual outcomes that occur as a result of individuals experiencing acculturation. In another words, acculturation phenomena resulted from contact between two or more cultures and research on acculturation had to be comparative in order to understand variations in psychological outcomes that were the result of cultural variations in the two groups in contact (Berry, 1997). In particular, this framework viewed the integration model of acculturation strategies the most desirable among other strategies, considering it the same as the biculturalism model (Berry, 1997). For example, Berry and his colleagues (Berry, 1980; Berry, J. W. , Kim, U. , Power, S. , Young, M, Bujaki, M. , 1989; Berry, Kim, Minde, Mok, 1987; Sam Berry, 1995 as cited in Farver et al., 2002) Assessed the acculturation strategies of various immigrant groups in North America and the result showed that integration was the most psychologically adaptive attitude, arguing that integrated or bicultural individuals experienced less acculturative stress and anxiety and manifested fewer psychological problems than those who were marginalized, separated, or assimilated, whereas marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including problems with self-identification and cultural alienation, which also affected their self-esteem (Farver et al., 2002). However, Phinney, Cantu, and Kurtz (1997) found that American identity was associated with self-esteem only for non-Hispanic Whites, but not for other ethnic groups. These mixed results as explained above raised two issues in the acculturation literatures. First of all, cultural practices might offer only a substitute for cultural adpatations, as Portes and Rumbaut (2001 as cited in Schwartz et al., 2010) mentioned that many Asian American young adults in their sample were not proficient in their native languages, even though they still perceived their identification with their parents’ countries of origin and maintained many of their values (Schwarz et al. , 2010). Secondly, most researchers on biculturism did not sufficiently define an accurate operational definition of biculturism so that interpretation of those research results were problematic (Birman, 1994). Indeed, one finding in the United States, was that self-identification as American was markedly higher in non-Hispanic Whites than in ethnic minority groups (e. g. , Devos Banaji, 2005; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) and many White Americans did not perceived themselves as members of an ethnic group (Schildkraut, 2007; as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010). In brief, different operational definition problems of acculturation arose from different theoretical models of acculturation regarding to their assumptions (LaFromboise, Coleman, Gerton, 1993). LaFromboise et al. (1993) assumed acculturation as one of substitutes among the biculturism models. Biculturism as defined in this theory was viewed as the alternation model, which implied an individual in two culture contacts could be competent in both cultures without losing one of the cultures’ competencies in distinct cultural contexts as alternation model, whereas, fusion model meant a blended cultural identity, consisting of a synthesis of aspects of both cultures (LaFromboise et al., 1993). However, Berry’s (1997) integrating approach of biculturism differed from the bicultural model (LaFromboise et al. , 1993; as cited in Birman, 1994) and it emphasized more on the relationship between the two cultural groups based on its implicit assumption that one of two cultures were higher than the other within a single social structure (LaFromboise et al. , 1993). Benet-Martinez and colleagues found that â€Å"blended† bicultural individuals tended to report higher self-esteem and lower psychological distress than a marginal population (Chen et al. , 2008 as cited in Schwartz et al. , 2010) because the consistent availability of both cultural flows within the person’s everyday life increased the ease of activating the correct cultural schema in accordance with their environmental situations (Schwartz et al. , 2010). In contrast, Tadmor, Tetlock, and Peng (2009) argued that the bicultural model considered those marginal individuals in positive ways, when there was little interest in cultural maintenance and little interest in having relations with others, suggesting positive aspects of being a marginal person might be (1) sharing his or her condition with others of the same original culture; (2) engaging in institutional practices that were shared by other marginal people; (3) experiencing no major frustration from social expectations; and (4) still perceiving himself or herself to be a member of a group (LaFromboise et al., 1993). According to Sam and Berry (2006), many studies of how migrants coped with intercultural contacts had discrepancies in the ways in which they were operationalized and measured. As no standardized or widely accepted acculturation measures existed, it was necessary to design a clear and explicit formulation of acculturation instrument in order to assess acculturation adequately (Sam et al. , 2006). Further Sam and Berry (2006) pointed out that most empirical studies widely used a self-report type of questionnaires that had been recognized limitations such as social desirability, emphasizing obtaining divergent validation by source of information other than the respondents’ reports. Therefore, it is vital to understand each theory within its specific assumptions and not to generalize across all situations regardless of their similar findings (LaFromboise et al. , 1993). As this study discovered migrants’ acculturation processes so far within specific theoretical frameworks, literature findings in different research were mixed as to whether individuals could be highly acculturated and at the same time be strongly identified with their ethnic group (Farver, Narang, Bhadha. , 2002). These confusing problems initially evolved because of the context in which migration arrangements and their acculturation processes were fundamentally transformed and increasingly uncertain due to globalization (Landolt Da, 2005). Shiraev Levy (2007) suggested a new approach to cross-cultural psychology in the twenty-first century, which was linked to the concept of globalization. Globalization was defined as a proliferation of cross-border flow and transnational networks due to new technologies of communication and transport that allowed frequent and multi-directional streams of people, ideas and cultural symbols (Castle, 2010). Castle also argued that globalization leads to major changes in the character of international migration. In other words, the context for migrant incorporation has already changed radically and will continue to do so. The rise of multiculturalism itself rather than assimilation or biculturism is one sign of this, but is not the end of the story: new forms of identity and belonging go beyond multiculturalism (Castle, 2010). Even though there is limited empirical evidence for clear statements for globalization, there probably are highly cosmopolitan groups who feel at home everywhere such as global business and professional elites might correspond with this image. But most members of transnational communities fall between these extremes, and probably have contradictory and fluctuating identities (Castle, 2002). Conclusions This study explored that a special case of cultural psychology was the study of how individuals respond to situations where they were in transition between their original culture and another that differed from it in some respects in terms of acculturation, especially within a specific theoretical frame that could apply to the specific situation (Adler Gielen, 1994). There was no single theory widely accepted by all social scientists to agree with the emergence and perpetuation of international migration patterns in the world under globalization (Van Hear, 2010),suggesting that the contemporary migrating context in which such migrating arrangements were realized fundamentally kept transforming so that it became increasingly uncertain (Landolt and Da, 2005). Although the topic of cultural contact and individual’ change has attracted considerable attention in contemporary cross-cultural psychology, the field has been characterized by a lack of theoretical coherence, definitional problems with key constructs, and single sample studies that limit the external validity of empirical cross-cultural research (Ward and Kenney, 1994). As acculturation is a process which takes place over time, and which results in changes both in the culture and in the individual culture changes, it would be ideal o compare two sets of data are compared over time using the same people. However, in practice, it is impossible in most acculturation research settings (Sam et al. , 2006). Instead, a common alternative to longitudinal research is cross-sectional research in which a time-related variable, such as length of residence or generational status can be used for the generalizability of acculturation theories (Sam et al., 2006). In general, researchers of migrating studies need to be aware that it is the selective nature of the sample that happens across all migrating research. That is, individuals who chose to migrate would be different from those who do not (Sodowsky, G. , Kwan, K. , Pannu, R. , 1995; as cited in Farver et al. , 1997). Finally, acculturation research generally focused on immigrants assumed to be permanently settled in their new host countries. As a result, the terms â€Å"migrants† or â€Å"international migrants† referred to the same type of migrants collectively. Moreover, many countries were both sending and receiving countries for different types of migrants, or in the process of transition from one type to the other (Castel, 2002). Therefore, where applicable, it is viable to design acculturation research studies classifying different types of migrants. References Adler, L. L. , Gielen, U. P. (Eds. ). (1994). Cross-cultural topics in psychology. Westport: Praeger Publishers. Berry, J. W. (1980). Social and cultural change. In Triandis, H. C. , Brislin, R. (Eds. ). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 211-279). Boston: Allyn Bacon. Berry, J.W. , Kim, U. , Power, S. , Young, M, Bujaki, M. (1989). Acculturation attitudes in plural societies. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 38, 185-206 Berry, (1990a). Psychology of acculturation. In Berman, J. (Eds. ). Cross-cultural perspectives: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 201-234). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaption. Applied Psychology: An international review, 46(1), 5-68. Berry, J. W. , Annis, R. (1974). A cculturation stress. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5(4), 382-397. Berry, J. W. , Kim, U., Minde, T. , Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21, 591-511. Berry, J. W. , Poortinga, Y. H. , Segall, M. H. , Dasen. P. R. (1992). Cross-cultural Psychology: Research and application. New York: Cambridge university Press. Birman, D. (1994). Acculturation and human diversity in a multicultural society. In Trickett, E. J. , Watts, R. J. , Birman D, (Eds. ). Perspectives on people in context (pp. 261-284). San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Castele, S. (2002). Migration and community formation under conditions of globalization. The Center for Migration Studies of New York, 36(4), 1143- 1168. Cuellar, I. , Arnold, B. , Maldonado, R. (1995). Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II: a revision of the original ARSMA scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 17, 275-304. doi: 10. 1177/07399863950173001 DelPilar, J. A. , Udasco, J. O. (2004). Deculturation: Its lack of validity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 10, 169-176. doi: 10. 1037/1099- 9809. 10. 2. 169 Devos, T. , Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = White? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 447-466. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 88. 3. 447 Farver, J. A. , Narang, S. K. , Bhadha, B. R. (2002). East meets west: Ethnic identity, acculturation, and conflict in Asian Indian families. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(3), 338-350. doi: 10. 1037//0893-3200. 16. 3. 338 Jones, A. (2008). A silent but mighty river: the costs of women’s economic migration. Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 33(4), 761-807. Landolt, D. , Da, W. W. (2005). The Spatially Ruptured Practices of Migrant Families: A Comparison of Immigrants from El Salvador and the Peoples Republic of China. Current Sociology, 53, 625-652. doi: 10. 1177/0011392105052719. LaFromboise. , T. , Coleman. , H. , Gerton (1993). Psychological impact of biculturism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 394-412. Liebkind, K. (1993). Self-reported ethnic identity, depression and anxiety among youth Vietnamese refugees and their parents. Journal of Refugee Studies, 6, 25-39. Neblett, E, Shelton, J. N. , Sellers, R. M. (2004). The role of racial identity in managing daily racial hassles. In Philogene, G. (Eds. ). Race and identity: The legacy of Kenneth Clark. Washington DC: American Psychological Association Press. Nesdale. , D. , Rooney. , R. , Smith. , L. (1997). Migrant ethnic identity and psychological distress. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(5), 569-588. doi: 10. 1177/0022022197285004 Phinney, J. S. (1990). When we talk about American ethic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51, 918-917. Phinney, J. S. , Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 271-281. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 54. 3. 271 Portes, A. , Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). Legacies: The story of the immigrant second generation. Berkerly: University of California Press. Redfield, R. , Linton, R. , Herskovits, M. J. (1936) memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, 149-152. Ross-Sheriff, F. (2011). Global migration and gender. Journal of Women and Social Works, 26(3), 233-238a. doi: 10. 1177/0886109911417692 Rudmin, F. W. (2003). Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Review of General Psychology, 7, 3-37. doi: 10. 1177/01461670731197 Sam, D. , Berry, J. W. (1995). Acculturative stress among young immigrants in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 36, 10-24. Sam, D. , Berry, J. W. (2006). The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology [Electronic version]. Retrieved from http://www. qut. eblib. com. au. ezp01. library. qut. edu. au/patron. Schildkraut, D. J. (2007). Defining American identity in the 21st century: How much â€Å"there† is there? Journal of Politics, 69, 597-615. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1468-2508. 2007. 00562. x Schwartz, S. J. , Unger, J. B. , Zamboanga, B. L. , Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for the theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237-251. doi: 10. 1037/a0019330 Sellers, R.M. , Caldwell, C. H. , Schmeelk-Cone, K. H. Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 302-317. Seller, R. M. , Shelton, R. M. (2000). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079-1092. Shiraev, E. , Levy, D. (2007). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Sodowsky, G. , Kwan, K. , Pannu, R., (1995). Ethnic identity of Asians in the United States. In J. Ponterotto (Ed. ), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 110- 130). Newbury Park: Sage. Stephenson, M. (2000). Development and validation of the Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS). Psychological Assessment, 12, 77-88. doi: 10. 1037/1040-3590. 12. 1. 77 Szapocznik, J. , Kurtines, W. , Fernandez, T. (1980). Bicultural involvement and adjustment in Hispanic-American youths. International Journal of Interculture Relations, 4, 353-365. Tadmor, C. T. , Tedlock, P. E. , Peng, K. (2009). Acculturation strategies and integrative complexity: The congnitive implications of biculturism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 105-139. doi: 10. 1177/0022022108326279 Tajfel, H. , Turner, J. C. (2001). An Integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Hogg, M. , Abrams, D. (Eds. ). The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 94-109). New York: Psychology Press. Turner, J. C. , Hogg, M. A. , Oakes, P. J. , Reicher, S. D. Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Balckwell. Unger, J. B. , Gallagher, P. , Shakib, S. , Ritt-Olson, A. , Palmer, P. H. , Johnson, C. A. (2002). The AHIMSA acculturation scale: A new measure of acculturation for adolescents in a multicultural society. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 225-251. doi: 10. 1177/02731602022003001 Van Hear, N. (2010). Theories of migration and social change. Journal of Ethic and Migration Studies, 36(10), 1531-1536. doi: 10. 1080/1369183X. 2010. 489359 Yip, T. , G, C. G. , Takeuchi, D. T. (2008). Racial discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age among immigrant and United States-born Asian adult. Dev Psychol, 44(3), 787-800. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 44. 3. 787.

Is Mary the Theotokos?

Is Mary the Theotokos? Is Mary the Theotokos?  Does it matter? Without the Blessed Virgin Mary Christianity, would be meaningless. That Mary is Mother of God is rooted deeply in sacred scripture, and this Church doctrine has been confidently taught since the Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431), during which occurred a decisive intervention of the Churchs teaching authority on behalf of Marys divine motherhood and against the claims of Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople who stated that Mary did not give birth to God, but to an ordinary baby, called Christ, who was in some way connected to God. Consequently, Mary did not deserve to be called by the title of Theotokos, or God-bearer, but rather the meeker title of Christotokos, or bearer of Christ. To get an idea of what was happening at the time we need to take a brief look at why this controversy began and at what was being said. So, to begin, it was the primary concern of the Council of Nicaea to make it plain beyond all possibility of misunderstanding that Jesus of Nazareth, while personally distinct from the Father, is God in the fullest sense of the word. As the Creed states, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, consubstantial with the Father; it was the Churchs determination to maintain this doctrine of derived equality without deviating into either modalism or tritheism, that led her on the long intellectual pilgrimage whose goal was full understanding of that mutual interpenetration of the three divine Persons, through their union with the one divine Essence, which is denoted by the word perichoresis. Only when the divinity of the Son had been firmly established could the Church give her full attention to the fact that the Son, being God, had become man. But can there be in Christ an unconfused union of Godhead and manhood? This was the question which was to exercise the minds of theologians and throw the life of the Church into turmoil from Constantinople to Chalcedon. What the orthodox Fathers were striving to do, and what was ultimately achieved at Chalcedon, was to preserve the doctrine of unconfused Godhead and manhood of Christ against tendencies which strove, on the one hand, to unite the two terms at the cost of confusing them with each other and, on the other hand, to keep them distinct at the cost of separating them. This today may not seem to offer any special difficulty; that this is so is a sign of the triumph of Chalcedon in theological thought, but, in the fifth century it was a notion that could only be achieved at the cost of bitter controversy and schism. So, when the theologically unimaginative but critically active Nestorius became Patriarch of Constantinople everything was ready for an explosion, which came when Nestorius openly supported his chaplain Anastasius in denouncing the application to the Blessed Virgin Mary of the title Theotokos. Nestorius was an Antiochene in Christology, deeply influenced by the ideas of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and it was his clumsy, clumsily articulated elucidation of the inferences of the position of the Antiochenes that was to set light to the controversy. Quite early on Nestorius was called upon to pronounce on the suitability of Theotokos as a title of the Virgin Mary, and ruled that its correctness was doubtful unless Christotokos was added to balance it. But in getting himself around this issue Nestorius used uncontrolled language which was calculated to provoke those whose approach was different to his own. He argued that no human being could be Gods mother and no human being could give birth to God; Mary gave birth to a man not God, the instrument of divinity. God could not have been carried for nine months in a womans womb, or have been wrapped in baby-clothes, or have suffered, died and been buried. Behind the description of Mary as Theotokos, he professed to detect the Arian theory that Marys Son was human or the Apollinarian concept that the manhood was imperfect. These flare-ups of Nestorius were calculated to be confrontational. But they played into the hands of Cyril of Alexandria, Nestoriuss bitter rival. Cyril claimed to see in them as a resurgence of the theory of two sons which was rejected in the fourth century. Alarmed by this claim that Marys son was just a man, Eusebius, later to become Bishop of Dorylaeum, quickly concluded that Nestorius was trying to re-establish the adoptionism of Paul of Samosata. By exploiting this interpretation Cyril was able to secure Nestoriuss condemnation as a heretic at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Based on these judgements the traditional picture of Nestorianism as a heresy which split God/man into two distinct Persons rapidly formed itself. When Divine Scripture is about to tell of the birth of Christ from the Virgin Mary or [his] death, in no place does it appear that it puts God but either Christ or Son or Lord, because these three are indicative of the two natures, now of this and now of that, now of the one and now of the other. For example, when the Book relates unto us the birth from the Virgin, whom docs it say? God sent his Son. It says not that God sent God the Word, but it takes a name which indicates both the natures. Since the Son is man and God, it says that God sent his Son and he was born of a woman; and therein thou seest that the name is put which indicates both the natures. Thou callest [him] Son according to the birth from the blessed Virgin, for the Virgin Mother / of Christ bare the Son of God. But since the Son of God is twofold in natures, she bare not the Son of God but she bare the humanity, which is the Son because of the Son who is united thereto (Nestorius, 450 AD). The first chapter of St Johns Gospel tell us quite simply that the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. Two points need to be noticed. The first is that in Hebrew flesh and blood means not just the material part of a man in contrast with his soul, but human nature as a whole. The second is that St John does not say that the Word united flesh to himself, but that he became flesh. St Athanasius was fundamentally clear on this point. In general, however, he was quite content to think of the Incarnation as taking place through the union of human flesh to the divine Word. He took upon him our flesh, as Aaron did his robe, and assumed a body like ours, having Mary for the Mother of his body (Athanasius, 356/360). Nestorius himself never drew from his premises the conclusions which Cyril believed him to have drawn and which were drawn by some of his followers. Nor is it to be supposed that the outlook of Antiochene theology logically implied the Nestorian heresy. What is true, however, is that, while the pluralistic emphasis of Antioch made it perfectly easy to preserve the distinction of the humanity and the divinity in Christ, it made it very difficult to provide for their real union. Apollinarius had maintained the union by removing from Christs humanity one of its constituents, the rational soul, and inserting the divine Word (Logos) in its place. No Antiochene could tolerate such a mutilation; the humanity must remain entire and complete. But how then is this unity of divinity and humanity to be effected? If the humanity is complete we shall surely have a complete human individual and it will be this individual and not the divine Word (Logos) who will be the subject of Christs life. No wonder, then, the Alexandrian will reflect, that these Antiochenes refuse to call Mary theotokos; they cannot help believing that he whom she bore was not God but a man, even if God came to dwell in him after she had borne him. Whatever they may say, they believe in two Sons, one the Son of God and the other the son of Mary, however close the relation of the two may be. The clash between these points of view was fierce at first. Cyrils intervention was quick when he heard of Nestoriuss mockery of Theotokos, in refuting what he deemed gross heresy. The patriarchs exchanged some quite prickly letters without with neither of them making any significant headway. So, Pope Celestine was contacted by Cyril, who send him a dossier of extracts from Nestoriuss writings and from the declarations made on the Incarnation by the reverend fathers of past generations. Nestorius also wrote letters to Celestine and in his third he stated: I have learned that Cyril, the most distinguished bishop of the city of Alexandria, has become worried about reports against him that we received, and is now hunting for subterfuges to avoid a holy synod taking place due to these reports. In the meantime he is devising some other disturbances over terms and has chosen [as a point of controversy] the term Theotokos and Christotokos: the first he allows, but as for Christotokos, sometimes he removes it from the gospels, and sometimes he allows it, on the basis of what I believe is a kind of excessive prudence. In the case of the term Theotokos, I am not opposed to those who want to say it, unless it should advance to the confusion of natures in the manner of the madness of Apollinaris or Arius. Nonetheless, I have no doubt that the term Theotokos is inferior to the term Christotokos, as the latter is mentioned by the angels and the gospels. And if I were not speaking to Your Worship who is already so knowledgeable, I would need to give a very long discourse on this topic. But even without a discourse, it is known in every way to Your Beatitude, that if we should think that there are two groups opposed to each other, the one using only the term Theotokos, the other only Anthropotokos, and each group draws [others] to what it confesses or, if they have not accomplished this, puts [others] in danger of falling from the church, it would be necessary to assign someone to such an affair if it arises who exercises concern for both groups and heals the danger of both parties by means of the term taken from the gospels that signifies both natures. For as I said, the term Christotokos keeps the assertion of both parties to the proper limits, because it both removes the blasphemy of Paul of Samosata, who claimed that Christ the Lord of all was simply a human being, and also flees the wickedness of Arius and Apollinaris. Now I have written these very things to the most distinguished bishop of Alexandria, as Your Beatitude can tell from the copies I have attached to this letter of mine, as well as from the copies of what he wrote to us. Moreover, with Gods help it has also been agreed to announce a world-wide synod in order to inquire into the other ecclesiastical matters. For I do not think it will be difficult to investigate an uncertainty over words, and it is not a hindrance for a discussion of the divinity of Christ the Lord (Nestorius, 430) It did not take to long for Celestine to make a decision, and he called a synod in Rome in August 430 which decided against Nestorius and voted in favour of the title Theotokos. Nestorius was given a warning that, within ten days he would be treated as excommunicate unless, after receiving the notification, he retracted his teaching. The implementation of this ruling was given to Cyril and he characteristically carried out his task. He held a synod at Alexandria, afterwards sending a letter to Nestorius requiring him to subscribe to twelve anathemas. These anathemas, which were intentionally confrontational, summarise in terms which were uncompromising the Cyrilline Christology, some of which I reference here: If anyone does not confess that Emmanuel is God in truth, and therefore that the holy virgin is the mother of God (for she bore in a fleshly way the Word of God become flesh, let him be anathema. If anyone does not confess that the Word from God the Father has been united by hypostasis with the flesh and is one Christ with his own flesh, and is therefore God and man together, let him be anathema. If anyone divides in the one Christ the hypostases after the union, joining them only by a conjunction of dignity or authority or power, and not rather by a coming together in a union by nature, let him be anathema. If anyone distributes between the two persons or hypostases the expressions used either in the gospels or in the apostolic writings, whether they are used by the holy writers of Christ or by him about himself, and ascribes some to him as to a man, thought of separately from the Word from God, and others, as befitting God, to him as to the Word from God the Father, let him be anathema. If anyone dares to say that Christ was a God-bearing man and not rather God in truth, being by nature one Son, even as the Word became flesh, and is made partaker of blood and flesh precisely like us, let him be anathema. If anyone says that the Word from God the Father was the God or master of Christ, and does not rather confess the same both God and man, the Word having become flesh, according to the scriptures, let him be anathema. If anyone says that as man Jesus was activated by the Word of God and was clothed with the glory of the Only-begotten, as a being separate from him, let him be anathema. If anyone dares to say that the man who was assumed ought to be worshipped and glorified together with the divine Word and be called God along with him, while being separate from him, (for the addition of with must always compel us to think in this way), and will not rather worship Emmanuel with one veneration and send up to him one doxology, even as the Word became flesh, let him be anathema. (Alexandria, 430). This union of two natures in the one divine Person of Christ is called the hypostatic or personal union. It is the mystery of the Incarnation of God; it is also the mystery of the divine Motherhood of Mary. Cyril also said in this letter: Therefore, because the holy virgin bore in the flesh God who was united hypostatically with the flesh, for that reason we call her mother of God, not as though the nature of the Word had the beginning of its existence from the flesh (for the Word was in the beginning and the Word was God and the Word was with God, and he made the ages and is coeternal with the Father and craftsman of all things), but because, as we have said, he united to himself hypostatically the human and underwent a birth according to the flesh from her womb. This was not as though he needed necessarily or for his own nature a birth in time and in the last times of this age, but in order that he might bless the beginning of our existence, in order that seeing that it was a woman that had given birth to him united to the flesh, the curse against the whole race should thereafter cease which was consigning all our earthy bodies to death, and in order that the removal through him of the curse, In sorrow thou shalt br ing forth children, should demonstrate the truth of the words of the prophet: Strong death swallowed them Up, and again, God has wiped every tear away from all face. It is for this cause that we say that in his economy he blessed marriage and, when invited, went down to Cana in Galilee with his holy apostles (Alexandria, 430). A letter was issued by Theodosius summoning a general council to meet at Ephesus at Pentecost 431, with an astonishing medley of rival meetings taking place before the event. Recognised as the Third General Council Ephesus was effective in that Nestorius was never rehabilitated, dying in exile in 451. Its more positive achievement was to canonize the Nicene creed as establishing orthodoxy. In the two years following Ephesus strenuous efforts were made to heal the divisions in the Church. The instrument of agreement, known as the Formula of Reunion, was contained in a letter sent by John of Antioch to Cyril, it ran as follows: We confess, therefore, our Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, perfect God and perfect man composed of a rational soul and body, begotten before the ages from the Father in respect of His divinity, but likewise in these last days for us and our salvation from the Virgin Mary in respect of His manhood, consubstantial with the Father in respect of His divinity and at the same time consubstantial with us in respect of His manhood. For the union(henosis) of two natures has been accomplished. Hence we confess one Christ, one Son, one Lord. In virtue of this conception of a union without confusion we confess the holy Virgin as Theotokos because the divine Word became flesh and was made man and from the very conception united to Himself the temple taken from her. As for the evangelical and apostolic statements about the Lord, we recognise that theologians employ some indifferently in view of the unity of person but distinguish others in view of the duality of natures, applying the God-befitting ones to Christs divinity and the humble ones to His humanity (Antioch, 433). Cyril greeted this formulary with enthusiasm in his letter to John Laetentur coeli. Which was read out at the Council of Chalcedon, part of which I now cite: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦We confess, therefore, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, perfect God, and perfect Man of a reasonable soul and flesh consisting; begotten before the ages of the Father according to his Divinity, and in the last days, for us and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin according to his humanity, of the same substance with his Father according to his Divinity, and of the same substance with us according to his humanity; for there became a union of two natures. Wherefore we confess one Christ, one Son, one Lord. According to this understanding of this unmixed union, we confess the holy Virgin to be Mother of God; because God the Word was incarnate and became Man, and from this conception he united the temple taken from her with himselfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Chalcedon, 451). After these early great councils of the Church feasts to The Blessed Virgin increased, lots of churches were dedicated to her and in the latter part of the seventh century four new feasts to Mary had started to be celebrated; the Annunciation, the Assumption, the Purification, and the Nativity of The Blessed Virgin Mary. With Pius IX promulgation of the Immaculate Conception in 1854 devotion to our Blessed Lady accelerated, and many appearances of the Blessed Virgin took place. And also at this time many Marian customs grew which included Maytime processions, the wearing of the Miraculous Medal and the Rosary. 1962 saw a major change which happened with Vatican II grounding more firmly in Scripture and liturgy devotion to Mary placing The Blessed Virgin securely in the mystery of the Church. The truth of the Blessed Virgin Marys divine Motherhood and its corresponding dignity are found in these words of the Second Vatican Council: The Virgin Mary, who at the message of the angel received the Word of God in her heart and in her body and gave Life to the world, is acknowledged and honoured as being truly the Mother of God and Mother of the Redeemer. Redeemed by reason of the merits of her Son and united to Him by a close and indissoluble tie, she is endowed with the high office and dignity of being the Mother of the Son of God, by which account she is also the beloved daughter of the Father and the temple of the Holy Spirit. Because of this gift of sublime grace, she far surpasses all creatures, both in heaven and on earth. At the same time, however, because she belongs to the offspring of Adam she is one with all those who are to be saved (Lumen Gentium, 53). The mark of our Blessed Ladys holiness is that she was filled with the grace of God. The Blessed Virgin is the pattern to follow. Giving herself completely with love she was filled with the life of God. Marys Yes to the angels message reveals her part in the work of salvation. And the Angel said: Fear not, Maryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the Holy Spirit shall come upon you, and the power of the most High shall overshadow you, and therefore the Holy which shall be born of you shall be called the Son of God (Luke 1:26-35). These are the words of the great mystery of Marys divine motherhood heralded by the angel in Lukes Gospel, their straightforwardness is persuasive as they announce the origin of our religion. In the beginning, they inspired triumphant faith, the faith of the martyrs and the Saints. The faith which will continue to inspire all Christians to the end of time.